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EASTERN PHILOSOPHY |
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by Gautama Buddha
Insight into the causes of error results in the cessation of the consciousness of the self. Phenomena, those sensuous objects that are striven for, are the cause of error. However, the cause of error is the incorrect concept of wholeness. Doubt arises because knowledge and ignorance are two different things. There can be no doubt concerning the fact that the whole exists, for it has been previously demonstrated. At the same time that we are not in doubt, other philosophers may state that is does not exist; that the whole or a part of the relationship is an impossible one; that there is no whole, nor are there any parts that comprise the whole; for actually there are no parts, and therefore there is no whole because there are no parts. Moreover, continue these philosophers, there is no whole because it is not independent of its parts; nor do the parts constitute the whole. These assertions create an unreal problem; for it does not make sense to talk of differences in the One, because it does not countenance differences. The reason advanced by our opponents is only apparent because of the fact that the whole would not be in the parts, even if it had these parts. To this they may object and say, that perception of the whole is like a wad of hair that dims vision. A sense organ, like perception, whether it be keen or dull, does no more than sense its proper object. It fails to function in respect to an object that does not belong to its field. Thus, our opponents will claim that the part-whole relationship could be continued until the dissolution of the world. However, there is no dissolution of the world, because there are atoms. Indeed it is said that the atom is finer than the mote in the sunbeam. Some thinkers maintain that this is not the case, for the atom is pervaded by akasa (ether), and that akasa does not possess the quality of universal penetration. However we say that the inner and outer parts exist only in a thing that is produced, just as one speaks of cause as something other than the thing that is produced. In anything that is not produced, there is no inner and outer. Moreover, akasa has the quality of all-pervasiveness; its conjunction with sound is universally present. Akasa has the qualities of nondispersion and nonresistance, and is omnipresent. Some, however, do maintain that there are parts to the atom, because things possessed of form have a structure and because atoms are conjoined. There is no valid objection to such reasoning, for that would lead to a regressus ad infinitum, and a regressus ad infinitum is not permissible. At this point, our adversaries will say that on the basis of intellectual analysis, one does not arrive at the nature of things, just as one does not perceive the existence of a piece of cloth except by its threads, so one does not perceive the whole except by its parts. To this we retort, that this is not a valid reason, it confuses the issue. The whole is not perceived as a separate entity, its parts are inherent in it. In addition, objects are dependent upon the source of knowledge whether that source of knowledge is correct or incorrect. Some opponents among the Buddhists tell us that this is an erroneous concept of the source and object of knowledge; just as they maintain that cognition of the image in dreams is erroneous; or that cognition is similar to the magic of the Fata Morgana of the city of Gandharvas or to the desert mirage called "thirst of the antelopes." This is without foundation, for there is no ground for such comparison. Incorrect cognition of images in dreams is similar to the cognition involved in memory and desire. These, in turn, involve a cognition similar to our conscious existence. Wrong perceptions disappear by virtue of knowing what is true, just as the wrong cognition of images in dreams vanishes upon waking. Similarly, we arrive at truth by the recognition of the reality of that which is the basis of thought, as well as by the fact that there is dual knowledge: one is true, the other is false, and by the virtue of distinguishing that which is real from that which is perceived to be wrong. Truth becomes known through special exercises for collecting one's thoughts. Some will aver from this, because certain objects are overpowering and because one is driven by hunger and the like, thus making the collection of one's thoughts an impossibility. Collection, by means of Yoga, should be practiced in the forest, in caves, and along river banks. One might conclude that in the final liberation there is a disturbing influence of externals. This is not so, because there must be a body, capable of receiving such disturbing impressions. Yet, such does not exist, nor is any longer countenanced in the liberated condition. With this in mind, we must prepare ourselves, with physical and mental restraint, and avail ourselves of the prescriptions regarding the self in Yoga discipline. One should practice the acquisition of insight and discuss it with those who have such wisdom. The truth-seeker should invite discussions with students, teachers, associates, distinguished people, those who strive for the summum bonum, and those who have a serene disposition. If he desires, he may seek such discussion, without antithesis, merely for the occasion to solidify his own views. Contests and disputes should be sought out in order to establish and guard the truth; just as one surrounds the seek corn with thorns and branches to protect it as it grows. In these two kinds of argumentation, debates engaged in accordance with the rules for winning the argument are in order.
Excerpted from the Nyayasutras. |
Buddha (Penguin Lives Biographies)
Jesus and Buddha: The Parallel Sayings
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