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ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY |
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Select: Introduction - Stoicism - Zeno of Citium - Cleanthes - Chrysippus Epicureanism - Lucretius - Skepticism - Pyrrho of Elis - Arcesilaus - Carneades Sextus Empiricus - Eclecticism - Euclid - Posidonius |
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The Ethical Period extends from the death of Aristotle to the beginning of the era of the decay and dissolution of Greek philosophy -- that is, for a duration of about three centuries. In the history of culture and civilization it takes the name of Hellenism, signifying the diffusion of Greek culture in the world, which up to this time is regarded as barbarian. While at first Greece and, more distinctly, Athens was the center of studies, now new centers arise: Rhodes, Pergamus, Antioch and Alexandria. These, though having their own particular inclinations, compete in culture with Athens and among themselves. The aims and development of Alexandria, the most important of these centers, are explained in a special note after the exposition of the philosophic thought of this age. In the history of philosophy this period is called Ethical. Indeed, during this time metaphysics falls into decadence or disappears completely, to give place to a practical problem; i.e., what direction or aim must man give his activity in order to assure himself peace of soul, in which, it is believed, happiness consists? This displacement of metaphysics by ethics, of pure speculation by practical thought, was the unavoidable consequence of the sadness of the times. Greece loses its independence, which was never again to be regained in the ancient world. First, the successors of Alexander the Great, and then the Romans, were to become masters of this piece of earth. Furthermore, this period is characterized by endless wars between the successors of Alexander and the Roman empire, which bathed in blood not only Greece but all the countries of the Mediterranean basin as well. These factors produced a spiritual bewilderment, and first of all a weakening of religious faith. The gods, under whose protection the Greeks had placed their cities, now appeared incapable of defending their rights over these same cities and the people entrusted to them. In addition to this, the ancient laws, which represented the fruit of ancient wisdom and which for the Greeks were the practical model of the life of the sage, crumbled like the walls of the cities under the violence of armies. Right fell away before might, and devastation and slaughter rendered ever more vivid the predominance of evil over good. As happens in great universal catastrophes, man, no longer able to have confidence in things outside himself, reenters into himself, and asks of himself the strength to oppose the evils which hang over him; so it happens at this time we are examining. Individualism takes the place which the community of men should hold, and the private good takes precedence over the common good. Hence one turns, as in truth was done during this period, not to the search for pure metaphysics, for lofty speculation, but to one's own reason, which should be the model of life for a sage who wishes to live in accordance with his reason and hence to assure himself, despite the crumbling world about him and the evils which surround him, of that quiet of soul necessary for the wise man. Thus philosophy becomes a practical problem, an ethical one, a search for an ideal worthy of a wise man, a philosopher. If one looks at the problem of life in this way, there are only three possible means of solving it:
These are the characteristics of the three streams of though which philosophy followed in its ethical development; i.e., Stoicism (the appeal to reason); Epicureanism (the appeal to pleasure); and Skepticism (the renunciation of every solution). Both the Stoics and the Epicureans speak of a logic and a physics which in its basis is metaphysics. But these two parts are only justifications of morality. As a consequence, there is one problem -- that is, the search for a model of life (ethics) -- which is determined rationally by its relation to metaphysics. Zeno of Citium (picture) was the founder of Stoicism. He came to Athens and at first was a disciple of the Cynic Crates. Then he opened his own school on a famous porch in Athens, from which place (Stoa is Greek for porch) it got the name "Stoic." He divided his teaching into logic, physics (which really is metaphysics) and ethics. Logic and physics are ways of justifying the precepts of ethics. The Stoics presented, in popular form, the theories of life proposed by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. These theories generally opposed materialism, hedonism, and egoism. Stoicism suited the strong judicial notions of the Roman mind. Stoicism maintained a lofty conception of human nature. The Stoics illustrated their doctrines by using the finest Roman types - this was a public service and extended Roman ideals. The Stoic doctrines concerning external conditions were important in preparing the way for Christianity - they influenced Christian asceticism in despising the body. The Stoics laid stress on the idea of natural law which aided jurists in framing the legal codes of Rome. Stoicism is distinguished by three periods:
Theory of Knowledge The Stoics held that the soul is a "tabula rasa" (blank sheet) and that only sensations are true. Ideas are reduced to images which are merely the co-ordinated result of many similar sensations preserved in memory and expressed in speech. The "criterion" for discerning true sensations from false sensations is the "assent" of the intellect. Physics (Metaphysics) The universe is conceived of as a great living organism composed of body and soul, both of material nature. The soul of the universe is called "Fire" or "Providence" or "God," and it is immanent in the universe. Every activity of the universe is rooted in mechanical necessity; hence there is no place for freedom. Ethics Virtue is the sole good and of itself is happiness; but what does virtue mean? Virtue means living according to reason, and reason tells us that all that happens must happen in order to actuate a superior good willed by God (who is immanently conceived). Hence a man is virtuous when he wishes that which happens and nothing else. But besides reason, there are in man passions and emotions. These are irrational elements, vices, and must therefore be eradicated in order to complete the domination of reason and to avoid every surprise. If this complete domination of reason cannot be retained, the Stoic will have recourse to suicide; for it is better to flee life than to lose tranquility of spirit. Stoic morality is one of absolute renunciation. The Stoic renounces all temporal goods because their loss can cause disturbance of mind. Since the Stoic does not believe in the immortality of the soul nor in the existence of God, such complete renunciation is made only for an egotistical motive (in order not to lose tranquility of spirit. Hence, while Christian morality is based on humility and charity, the ethics of the Stoic are based on egotistical pride. In politics, the Stoics defend cosmopolitanism against racial sentiment; theirs was a cosmopolitanism which produced much good in Roman society. The Defects of Stoicism Stoic teaching, in the main, was a direction for the strong man. It was pitched too high for average human nature and offered little regard for human sympathy and human weakness. The Stoic was obsessed by the pride of his own virtue. The Stoic advocated following nature without saying what nature is save that it is an abstract system. In The Radical Academy
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Noted as a director of the oldest Stoic school for thirty-one years, Cleanthes, an indigent scholar, worked mostly as a porter until finally, at the age of fifty, he was enabled to enter a philosopher's school. He became a devoted disciple of Zeno of Citium, the Stoic, studied under his master for nineteen years, and upon Zeno's death, assumed the directorship of the school. Cleanthes slightly modified Zeno's doctrine. Cleanthes was also famous as a poet; of his forty works, all of them very short, many fragments are extant. A large portion of his most famous poem, Hymn to Zeus, has been preserved. Even as head of the school, and despite his advanced years, Cleanthes continually astonished his friends by hoisting heavy loads and earning his living by manual work. In The Radical Academy
Elsewhere On The Internet
The Stoic school of philosophy, established by Zeno, would not have had as lasting an influence had not Chrysippus (picture) developed and solidified its concepts. He was born in Soli, Cilicia, Asia Minor, and went to Athens in 260 B.C. There he succeeded Cleanthes as director of the Stoic school. Chrysippus is said to have written some seven hundred books on a variety of topics. Although his literary style was far from masterful, he was a systematic thinker, logician, and psychologist. He anticipated several important propositions which were of considerable consequence in later eras. He particularly investigated sentiments and ideas, and tried to obtain through logical and dialectical disquisitions the irrefutable truths upon which his ethics and theology were based. Chrysippus stated that the essential characteristic of man which distinguished him from the animals was that his judgment became active as soon as his sensations were irritated. In ethics, Chrysippus assumed that a natural impetus operated in all living creatures. This impetus was conscious in man. He did not see any dichotomy between the decision of human will and that of natural impetus. Nature, striving for virtue, made the natural impetus. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
The founder of the Epicurean School was Epicurus (342?-270 B.C.) (picture). In 306 B.C., he opened a school at Athens in his own garden. Epicurus was a cultivated and fashionable man, and his school became a center of aristocratic life for his friends and disciples. Summaries of his teachings were put into pamphlet form and given to his pupils to be learned by heart. His disciples gave him divine honors. The poem of Lucretius Carus (96?-55 B.C.), "De Natura Rerum," is the chief source for the Epicurean doctrine. Logic The Epicureans were like the Stoics inasmuch as they recognized only sense knowledge as valid and reduced ideas to images of many similar sensations. They were opposed to the Stoics on the question of the criterion of truth, affirming that the "canon" of truth is the subjective evidence produced by sensation. Physics (Metaphysics) Epicurus noted that two impediments hinder man from a happy life; fear of God and the horror of death. To overcome these he adopted the atomic doctrine of Democritus, in which there is neither fear of God nor horror of death, since everything is nothing more than an association and dissociation of atoms. Ethics Nature and reason show that pleasure is the only good and pain the only evil. Animals, guided by nature, are inclined to seek pleasure and flee pain. Man must do likewise to attain a state of tranquility. Epicurus also noted that the root of all evil is the desire for pleasure. According to his observation, he classified all goods according to those which may be desired and those which must be avoided. These are: (1) natural and necessary goods; (2) natural and unnessary goods; and (3) unnatural and unnecessary goods. The Epicurean must be satisfied only with the goods of the first class, and he must renounce those of the second and third class. With the goods of the first class (food and clothing) the Epicurean obtains tranquility of body; by renouncing the goods of the second and third class (family and honors) he obtains tranquility of spirit. Epicurus did not, however, renounce friendship and the pleasures of art, both of which he considered necessary to remove the discomforts of life. Religion In religion, Epicurus admits the existence of Gods who live a happy life in the void space of the sky. They do nothing for man, neither good nor evil. Epicurus pays respect to them for aesthetic reasons, just as he respects the statues in his garden. Summary The pleasures of the mind are declared to be superior to those of the body. Epicurean pleasure is not sensuality, it is the highest Good of every individual. It is not the pursuit of the coarse and violent pleasures of sense but the equable, moderate, and enduring pleasures of the mind and of friendship. Its philosophy is a doctrine of self-interest and selfish amiability occasioned through strivings which seek the goal of happiness and may lead to disregard of others. Epicureanism made a strong appeal to the world-weariness of society but did not appeal to the more robust Roman of the Republic. In The Radical Academy
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Lucretius [Titus Lucretius Carus] (98-55 B.C.) The system of Epicurus was converted into a striking picture of cosmic and human life by Lucretius (picture) in his poem De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things). A tense, electric atmosphere permeates this poem. Much more than a didactic work, it is the confession of a man of violent passions who is longing for equanimity and, while cleansing his own mind of false ideas, proves to be ready to sacrifice even those illusions that apparently promise peace of mind. The only extant report of Lucretius' life was written by Jerome, the Father of the Church, who certainly does not approve of the poet's opinions and quite possibly is not an impartial biographer. According to Jerome, Lucretius was afflicted by intermittent insanity, and committed suicide. Some sayings of Lucretius himself indicate that he was threatened by mental disease,and it is probable that he became resolved to die voluntarily when he felt that he had lost the tranquil mind which alone, in his belief, makes life tolerable. It almost happened that Lucretius' poem was entirely lost. Emperor Augustus, who tried to restitute ancient religion stigmatized Lucretius, whose memory vanished subsequently, and all but one manuscript of his poems was destroyed. The epoch of the Renaissance meant also the revival of Lucretius, who has since been considered one of the greatest poets of world literature. He was admired by Milton, Shelley and Walt Whitman, whose 'Apostrophe to Death" may be traced to his reading of Lucretius. Alfred Tennyson, relying on Jerome, made Lucretius the object of a pathological study. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
Skepticism appeared as a contemporary of Epicureanism and Stoicism. The founder of Skepticism is Pyrrho of Elis (365?-275 B.C.). Carneades is the sytemizer of probabilism. Sextus Empiricus (who lived at the beginning of the Christian era) returned to the purer Skepticism of Pyrrho. Doctrine Skeptics hold that the wise man can be assured of the greatest degree of quietude and happiness by renouncing all desires. Moreover, they hold that it is impossible to reach truth with absolute certainty because sensations vary from individual to individual. Neither the Stoic criterion nor the Epicurean evidence can change this natural behavior of sensation. Since complete renunciation would be impossible to maintain in practice, the Skeptics had recourse to probabilism; of two opposites the Skeptic accepts the one which seems more efficacious. Summary Skepticism is the philosophy of doubt. Since we have no means of knowing the true nature of things, we have a degree of probability, a perceptual clearness. This position led to Eclecticism. Elsewhere On the Internet
Pyrrho of Ellis (c. 360-c. 270 B.C.) Pyrrho was born in Ellis, Greece and he is known as the founder of Pyrrhonism, which is generally regarded as the foundation of Skepticism. His opinions are known from the writings of his pupil, Timon of Phlius. He taught that we can know nothing of the nature of things, but that the best attitude of mind is suspense of judgment, which brings with it calmness of mind. Anecdotes are told of his indifference to disaster, including that many times his friends had to save him from accidental falls. He was said to have been in the company of Alexander the Great when he reached the border of India and learned his attitude of detachment from the "gymnosophists," the naked philosophers. In one well-told incident, Pyrrho was mocked for being alarmed by a fierce dog which chased him, but Pyrrho said that it was difficult to strip off human nature. He attempted to maintain tranquility by balancing any plausible-sounding thesis with its plausible opposite, and binding himself to nture, custom, impulse, and craft-discipline without affirming any thesis to be true. Elsewhere On The Internet
From 270 to 240 B.C., Arcesilaus directed the Platonic Academy at Athens and helped it to regain its former splendor. During his administration, the doctrine of the Academy turned to a skepticism similar to that of Pyrrho and Timon, although it had developed independently of them and was somewhat milder in form. Arcesilaus studied mathematics with Autolycus, a predecessor of Euclid at Sardes, Asia Minor. He was also an experienced musician, and a brilliant speaker and teacher. He regarded himself as the true disciple of Plato, haranguing against Speusippus and Xenocrates whom he accused of distorting Plato's doctrines. According to Arcesilaus, the correct understanding of Plato results in doubt, suspension of judgment, and a complete spiritual freedom equivalent to the supreme good. With a vehemence equal to that of other Platonists, Arcesilaus attacked the Stoics, who, in turn, severely criticized him. Epicurus was the only contemporary philosopher he acknowledged. Only a few sayings of Arcesilaus are extant. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
Carneades (picture) was born in Cyrene, North Africa. A radical skeptic, he was the first of the philosophers to pronounce the failure of metaphysicians who endeavored to discover rational meanings in religious beliefs. By 159 B.C. he had begun to refute all dogmatic doctrines, particularly Stoicism; nor did he spare the Epicureans as previous skeptics had done. The original theory of probability that he developed was profound and of great consequence. While he attacked the efforts of the Stoics to reconcile popular religions with their philosophical convictions, he also denied the immortality of the gods, their superhuman qualities, pantheism, fatalism, and providence. He refused to accept moral values as absolute, although he taught the necessity of learning how to conduct one's life in an artful manner by combining sagacity and reflective thought. In his practical ethics, he professed a moderate Platonism, devoid of all religious or metaphysical elements. He founded the third or New Academy. However, his philosophy had very little in common with Plato, the original founder of the Academy. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
Sextus Empiricus (c. 200 A.D.) The writings of Sextus Empiricus (picture) are an arsenal of skepticism which has furnished pagan thinkers with weapons to combat Christianity, Christian apologists with arguments to refute paganism, and, in later centuries, philosophers like Montaigne with reasons in defense of the independence of their minds on dogmatism of any kind. Sextus, a physician by profession, was not so much an original thinker as an informed popularizer, a skillful and vigorous writer, who was able to summarize his thoughts by striking formulas. He attacked not only dogmatic philosophers and theologians but any expert, whether of mathematics or grammar, who claimed infallibility. In this way he has also given highly valuable information about the history of various sciences such as they had developed in his time. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
When Macedonia was conquered by the Romans, and Greece became a Roman province, Greek culture penetrated Roman thinking and the Romans became eclectic. They took from different systems what appealed to them, and modified it to suit their tastes. Beliefs Eclecticism is a form of Skepticism. It denies that there are absolute truths and accepts, for practical purposes, what seems the better in different and opposite systems. The fragments of conflicting thought are selected and organized into a comprehensive system of compatible knowledge presenting an expansion of the world-views. Eclectic thinking weakened dogmatism and encouraged intellectualism. Elsewhere On the Internet
V. UNCLASSIFIED PHILOSOPHERS Hippocrates and Euclid (picture) were regarded as the most popular scientists of classical antiquity, but no ancient author made note of even the slightest biographical detail of the latter. From Euclid's own statements and from the earliest allusions to his writings by Greek scholars, it may be concluded that he lived during the reign of Ptolemy I of Egypt (305-285 B.C.). Euclid's Stoicheia (Elements) are the basis of the mathematical sciences of both ancient and modern times. He did not perform all, and perhaps not even a large portion of the discoveries he systematized in his book. But certainly he corrected, amplified, and developed many of the propositions made by predecessors. He gave to mathematics the form which was maintained until the nineteenth century, and he established a standard of scientific exactitude retained by scholars active in all branches of science, even though entirely new concepts of mathematics were current. Philosophers have tried to imitate Euclid's methods of demonstration. The philosophy of Spinoza is the most famous example of the application of Euclid's manner. Euclid was well acquainted with Greek philosophy. His fundamental views were derived from Plato, but he also studied the works of Aristotle and his disciples. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
The remnants of the works of Posidonius (picture) consist of sentences which have been quoted by later authors. In his time and by many succeeding generations, he was esteemed as the most learned scholar who was able to present dry matter in a popular, even picturesque style. Posidonius was born in Syria but taught mostly on the island of Rhodes and at Rome. He traveled through North Africa, Spain, France and Italy and wrote on philosophy, history, geography, physics, and astronomy. Religion played an important part in his thinking. He revered the Greek, Roman, and Oriental gods and rites, and combined the beliefs in the gods and demons with the traditional Stoic pantheism. His picture of the Universe, though preserved in fragments only, influenced many thinkers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and his sayings, which blend reason with mysticism, sober experience with daring conjectures, inspired Leibnitz and the romanticists. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
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