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ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY |
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Select: Cicero - Lucian of Samosata - Seneca - Musonius Rufus Dio Chrysostom - Epictetus - Marcus Aurelius |
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The Greco-Roman Moralists Marcus Tullius Cicero (picture) is one of the best known figures of Roman antiquity because of the public character of his career. Famed for his oratory and an important political leader in ancient Rome, his life coincided with the decline and fall of the Roman Republic, and he was an important actor in many of the significant political events of his time. His writings are a valuable source of information about those events. Besides being a brilliant orator, he was also a lawyer, politician, and philosopher. Although not entirely admirable in his own character (he was very vain for one thing), he shows us the real-life struggle between high ideals and human frailty. Cicero was born to wealth and married several times into greater wealth. He was described by Plutarch as being a person who was driven by love of honor, driven by ambition to be a noble, honorable, and important figure. He was educated in philosophy and rhetoric in Greece and Rome. In Athens, he studied under the heads of the leading philosophical schools of the time such as Philo of the Academy, Diodorus the Stoic, and Phaedrus the Epicurean. When he was in his mid-twenties, he took time out from his career to spend time in Athens studying again with the Epicureans and the Platonists, and continued his studies in Rhodes with Posidonius, the Stoic philosopher. It is obvious that Cicero's interest in philosophy was more than merely casual. After a quaestorship spent in Sicily, Cicero advanced his career through the courts and by promoting the interests of Pompey the Great, especially in the prosecution of Verres and by his speech "Pro lege Manilia" in favor of the law transferring to Pompey command of the war against Mithradates VI, which had already been taken away from Lucius Licinius Lucullus. After holding the aedileship and the praetorship, Cicero achieved his life's ambition, the consulship, in 63 BC. His time as consul was the high point of his career and he saved the republic by quelling the conspiracy of Cataline. But caught up in the rivalry between Pompey and Caesar, then the Triumvirate, Cicero was exiled, controlled, and marginalized. Exile was painful for Cicero, but he was recalled in 57 B.C. Cicero now tried to maneuver Pompey away from Caesar, but after the conference of Luca he was forced to support the Triumvirate. Humiliated, Cicero turned to writing philosophical and rhetorical treatises. After governing Cilicia during 51-50 B.C., he returned to Rome just as the civil war between Caesar and Pompey was about to start. He finally joined Pompey and the republicans in Greece but took no part in the Battle of Pharsalus, where Pompey was defeated. Cicero then returned to Italy, was pardoned by Caesar, and again retired from public life. After Caesar's assassination in 44 B.C., in which he was not involved, Cicero returned to politics with renewed vigor. He boldly attacked Mark Antony but unwisely allied himself with Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), who played him false by joining Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in the Second Triumvirate. Proscribed at Antony's insistence, Cicero was beheaded on December 7, 43 B.C. His severed head was put on display in the Roman forum. Cicero wrote almost all his philosophical works between 46 and 43 B.C., while in exile. His writings are encyclopedic in scope, eclectic in substance, and derivative from Greek models. His political works -- Republic and Laws -- imitate the same works by Plato, but show originality by working with the actual history and constitution of the Roman state. As n exile, he is writing these books in the hopes that his ideas will have an effect on his fellow Romans. For Cicero, to be a philosopher is not simply to change oneself, to become virtuous, it is to have an impact on the lives of others. This is the Stoic view. Among the important writings of Cicero are his works in logic -- Academica and Topics -- which show his devotion to a moderate skepticism and his works devoted to religious issues -- De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione, and De Fato -- where he positions himself between the dogmatism of the Epicureans and the Stoics. We cannot know with certainty, but probable knowledge enables us to follow the path of nature reasonably. Cicero also wrote in the field of ethics and his writings place him in the company of the Greco-Roman moral philosophers. His Consolatio and Hortensius, both now lost, focused on philosophy as a mode of life rather than simply a body of knowledge. Incidentally, it was the Hortensius that later converted St. Augustine to Platonic philosophy. Cicero's De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum is a comparison of Epicurean, Stoic, and Aristotelian ethical views, his Tusculan Disputations deals with fear of death, pain, and mental distress, and De Officiis, written for his son, is devoted to practical ethics. For Cicero, virtue is the only thing that counts in life and, in this regard, Cicero is a complete Stoic. In The Radical Academy
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Lucian of Samosata (c. 120-180 A.D.) Lucian was born at Samosata in Commagene and calls himself a Syrian; he may or may not have been of Semitic stock. He was a comic writer of great range and complexity. In fact, he was the greatest satirist of the ancient world, influencing many other writers such as Rabelais, Jonathan Swift, Voltaire, Hume, and Montaigne. He is the spiritual ancestor of Mark Twain and H.L. Mencken. Lucian was a brilliant observer of society at every level and a merciless exposer of the failings of philosophers and philosophy. He began his career as apprentice to his uncle, a sculptor, but soon became disgusted with his prospects in that calling and gave it up for rhetoric, the branch of the literary profession then most in favor. Theoretically the vocation of a rhetorician was to plead in court, to compose pleas for others and to teach the art of pleading; but in practice his vocation was far less important in his own eyes and those of the public than his avocation, which consisted in going about from place to place and often from country to country displaying his ability as a speaker before the educated classes. He practiced as an advocate in Antioch, traveling widely in Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Gaul. He then settled in Athens, where he devoted himself to philosophy, and produced a new form of literature -- humorous dialogue. In his later years, he spent some time attached to the court in Alexandria. Lucian's work includes Dialogues of the Gods and Dialogues of the Dead; in the latter work he consistently admires the members of the Cynic school -- Antisthenes, Crates, Diogenes, Menippus. His ironic True History describes a journey to the moon, and inspired a number of imaginary voyages. In Philosophies for Sale and its sequel, The Fisherman, Lucian provides first an attack on all philosophers, then a defense of philosophy itself in her own name. Aspects of the theme of hypocrisy are developed in The Eunuch and Dialogues of the Courtesans, while in Hermotimus, the travails of a philosophic seeker reveal a deeper skepticism about the entire enterprise. Elsewhere On the Internet
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (picture) was one of the most broadly influential philosophical writers in the Stoic tradition, and he shows even more dramatically than Cicero how perilous life close to the throne was for a philosopher. Born in Cordoba, Spain, of a family that was extraordinarily wealthy, talented, and well connected, Seneca went to Rome as a boy to study rhetoric and philosophy. His promising political career, slowed by ill health, was later endangered by the insane emperor Caligula and interrupted under Emperor Claudius I, when he was condemned on a charge of adultery with Julia Livilla and exiled to Corsica in 41 A.D. Seneca later expressed his bitter resentment of Claudius in the satirical Apocolocyntosis, in which he mocked the deification of Claudius and made fun of his physical defects. Recalled to Rome in 59 A.D., Seneca became tutor to the young emperor Nero and exerted a beneficial influence on the first few years of his reign. Falling out of favor, he went into retirement in 62 A.D.; in 65 A.D. he was accused of conspiracy against the emperor and sentenced to death. He chose to commit suicide instead, a choice approved by his philosophy. A large portion of Seneca's literary work was produced during his years of exile, from 41 to 49 A.D. and reluctant retirement from 63 to 65 A.D. Seneca taught a rigorous and demanding form of Stoic morality. He never claimed to be a sage himself, but only someone striving, and he faced suicide in the noble Stoic fashion. Seneca wrote twelve works entitled Moral Essays and 124 so-called Moral Epistles, as well as a work on natural phenomena and several poetic tragedies based on Greek models. Less an original philosopher than a moral teacher and guide, he regarded Stoicism as a practical doctrine, subordinating logic and physics to ethics: "The true philosopher," he held, "is the teacher of humanity." He urged people to become indifferent to the transient goods of the world, valuing only the virtue within themselves. To become truly virtuous, he maintained, the wise person must learn to curb his emotions, which are, or involve, false judgments concerning the value of externals. Seneca examined the nature and effects of the passions at length, demonstrating how they can be mastered, and praised the happy state of the person who cannot be shaken by fortune. His letters, aimed at educating their recipients in Stoicism, contain some of his finest discussions of Stoic problems. The tragedies, although deemed too rhetorical by many readers, contain striking declamatory passages and intriguing portraits of intense emotional states. On the Happy Life is written to his brother Gallio and Seneca argues that happiness consists in following nature, and the best way to do that is by being a philosopher. "The highest good is harmony of the soul." Pleasure in itself is not a problem because the virtuous life brings pleasure. This essay also defends ideals even when they can't be met. On Tranquillity of Mind is written to a young friend, Serenus, who complains of mental torment because of conflicting desires and drives. Seneca responds by showing the way to a godlike stability of mind. It is a matter of application, perceptions, and expectations. Seneca frequently developed his ideas without clarity or precision. His style has impressed some critics as overblown, repetitious, and insincere, but many have found him a moving writer and a valuable moral guide. In medieval and Renaissance literature Seneca's influence was enormous, particularly in tragedy, where his bloody plots set a standard down to the time of Shakespeare. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On the Internet
Musonius Rufus (c.30-100 A.D.) Musonius Rufus was a Roman philosopher born in Etruria. He was Senaca's contemporary, but he is less well known and remains obscure today; only the bare outlines of his life are available. His reputation, however, among other philosophers of his time was excellent. Like Socrates and Epictetus, he left no writings of his own. His present obscurity is connected to his oral mode of teacher. Students transcribed his discourses, and only fragments of them remain. Perhaps his greatest contribution to history was to be the teacher of Epictetus, whose memories of his master give a vivid impression of his character and teaching. Musonius fell under the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus) and who endeavored to preach a doctrine of peace and goodwill among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy, which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though he did not altogether neglect logic and physics, he maintained that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and the truly good man is also the true philosopher. In his discourses dedicated to the philosophical calling, Musonius reveals his Stoic-Cynic tendencies. He emphasizes the need for self-control in one who demands self-control of subjects. He views agriculture not only as a noble exercise of virtue, but also one that can serve as a means of instruction through imitation. He also points out that the philosopher's life means hard work and a willingness to suffer. Musonius argues that philosophy is not only a matter of knowledge but also of practice, done in obedience to the call of God. Philosophers had different views concerning the innate goodness or badness of human beings. Musonius tends toward a more optimistic view and is correspondingly demanding in his ethics. He argues that virtue is not a specialized art but is one that is available to all and desired by all. His sexual ethics are noteworthy for their stringency. Sexual intercourse is legitimate only in marriage and only for the sake of procreation. Interestingly, Musonius's attitude toward women was usually egalitarian. His teaching should be placed in the context of a general male hostility toward women's emancipation and participation in the early empire. He is outspoken in his view that women are as capable as men of learning and acquiring virtue. Nonetheless, he remains deeply conservative socially. Philosophy serves to help women better serve in the household. Elsewhere On the Internet
Dio Chrysostom was born in Prusa (modern Bursa) in Bithynia (located in Asia Minor). He was educated in oratory and his early career was spent as a professional rhetorician or sophist, who delivered a variety of orations for pay throughout the cities of the Roman empire. His great eloquence earned him the name Chrysostom, that is, "golden-mouthed." He experienced in mid-life a dramatic conversion of sorts to the philosophical life and from then on devoted himself to teaching virtue as a wandering philosopher. He leaned toward the philosophy of the Cynics and Stoics. With Plutarch he shared in the revival of Greek literature in the first century. Dio lived at Rome under Emperor Domitian, who subsequently banished him because he was an associate of someone who had been accused of plotting against the emperor. He traveled widely, finally returning to Rome in the favor of emperors Nerva and Trajan. At first his exile seemed onerous, but then it began to appear as an opportunity. He decides to consult the god Apollo at Delphi. The god advises him to keep doing what he was already doing. Little by little, Dio comes to be taken for, and realizes that he is, a real philosopher. He preaches in the manner of Socrates, calling his fellow citizens from lives of vice and ignorance and turning them to self-awareness and virtue. He even appears before great crowds in the city of Rome. Extant are 80 orations by Dio on literary, political, and philosophical subjects, including On His Banishment, an autobiographical account of his conversion; To the People Alexandria, a sketch of the popular philosophers as viewed by one among them; and On Envy, a discussion of the ideal philosopher and what he should be like.
The philosopher Epictetus (picture) was a Roman slave who became a leading representative of Stoicism in Rome. The son of a slave, himself crippled by a brutal master, he was legally emancipated and became the example of an upright, independent, free man. Epictetus was born in Phrygia, Asia Minor, and sold to one of the retinue of Emperor Nero. He was allowed to attend the lectures of the Stoic philosopher Musonius Rufus whom he greatly admired. From Musonius he learned how to make theoretical discussions personal confessions. When Musonius died, Epictetus, who by this time had been freed from slavery, held philosophical lectures in Rome. In 90 A.D., Emperor Domitian, who disliked freedom of expression, banished Epictetus and all other philosophers from the capital. Epictetus went to Nicopolis, in Epirus, Greece, where among the members of his large audience was the future Emperor Hadrian. Epictetus also exerted considerable influence over Emperor Marcus Aurelius; the latter's views almost consistently agreed with those of Epictetus. Epictetus taught that reason governed the world and was identical with God. Sometimes he paralleled Christian doctrines. He mentioned the "Galileans"; praised their courage, but maintained that they were devoid of reason. His work, expressed in simple and frank language, attracted many thinkers of later centuries, notably Montaigne and Kant. Often, when men were afflicted by misfortune, they declined religious consolation and read the Encheiridion (Manual) to regain peace of mind. The manual was not written by Epictetus, but by his faithful disciple Arrian, a military commander and important dignitary of the Roman empire, who had made notes on his teacher's psychological observations, moral meditations, lectures, and conversations. His Manual and Discourses stress his opinion that philosophy is a way of life rather than an art of using words. He held that since the events of the world are all determined by providence and thus beyond our control, individuals must try to accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. Epictetus also argued, however, that individuals are totally responsible for their deeds and must learn how to judge their actions by rigorous daily self-examination. The "wise man" will recognize that he has a duty toward society and his fellow humans, for all humans are alike and entitled to basic rights. About half the original manual is extant. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On the Internet
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 A.D.) Marcus Aurelius (picture) ruled Rome from 161 until his death. Born Marcus Annius Verus, he was adopted by the emperor Antoninus Pius in 138 and married to his daughter Annia Galeria Faustina a few years later. He succeeded to the throne without difficulty on Antoninus's death. Marcus insisted on sharing power equally with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus had also adopted, even though Verus, who died in 169, was clearly less competent. To understand Marcus, consider that while thousands cheered hysterically when a victorious gladiator plunged his sword into his vanquished opponent, a boy in the imperial box buried himself even deeper in a book on moral philosophy. This was Marcus Aurelius and the tone was set for his outlook on life. Educated by the best tutors in Rome and Athens, Marcus was a devotee of Greek learning and of the philosophy of Stoicism. Even during his campaigns (167-175, 178-180) against the Marcomanni and other Danubian tribes he kept a "spiritual diary." This document, the Meditations, reflects Marcus's attempt to reconcile his Stoic philosophy of virtue and self-sacrifice with his role as a warrior-sovereign. This emperor-saint wrote his best-known work on the battlefield. His life and writings show Stoicism at its best although he was judged wanting in ability to cope with empire problems where force was deemed necessary for their successful solution. Like his foster father, Marcus believed that no price was too great which might buy peace and good will. Never before in the Western world had a philosopher sat on the throne, none, surely, that had tried so consistently to extol the virtues of the intellect, none that dismissed pleasure and fought with righteous zeal the ignorance which is at the base of the fear, desire and sorrow that constitute the evil of this world. Even the Christians, whom he never understood and who suffered in consequence, acknowledged the saintliness of his character and could not help but admire his half agnostic, half faith-inspired belief in God or gods as the font of wisdom and power. While the political situation worsened throughout the empire which was no longer protected by Roman armies but by foreign armed bands, while his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, wasted himself and the empire's opportunities in debauchery in the East, while Rome was gripped in the Oriental plague and the Italian peninsula threatened by the Marcomanni, throughout all this Antonius remained true to himself. He honored his faithless, scheming wife, Faustina, by consecrating a temple to her at Halala where she died and one at Rome, and by establishing a foundation for poor girls. Her damning letter he nobly burned unread. Marcus's wars and benevolences -- he lowered taxes and was charitable toward the less fortunate -- were expensive and often ineffective. His son Commodus, who succeeded him, inherited the Danubian war, which Rome could not win, and a treasury that had been seriously depleted. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On the Internet
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