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Some Important Issues in Philosophy |
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The Wonder of Matter - Page 3 III. Modern Scientific Data A philosopher of the 20th century is much more fortunate than his predecessors in previous centuries, since there is so much more scientific data about the nature of material reality than previously available. Although much about the material universe remains a mystery even to scientists, there is sufficient data upon which scientists agree to warrant a philosophical interpretation in the light of the "philosophy of being." Today's scientific information is very much centered around the atom. The atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element that can exist alone or in combination. The atom is composed essentially of a small positively charged comparatively heavy nucleus surrounded by a comparatively large arrangement of electrons. The nucleus itself consists of protons and neutrons except in hydrogen which consists of one proton only. Thus we may say that the basic structure of material reality consists in the arrangement of three basic particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. It is this arrangement, discovered by the human mind, that makes the atom intelligible to us, accounting for the various elements in nature, and which therefore corresponds in some way to the various "forms" of matter as envisioned by Aristotle. The atom was previously thought to be the ultimate indivisible particle of matter. With the advent of the atomic age, however, we know that the atom can be split, giving rise to a sudden release of "atomic" energy. This energy is liberated by changes in the nucleus of the atom (as by fission of a heavy nucleus or fusion of light nuclei into heavier ones with accompanying loss of mass). Forty years before the atomic bomb exploded, the mathematical equation which made it possible was proposed by Albert Einstein. He wrote that if a body gives off an amount of energy (E) in the form of light, its mass will be reduced by that amount divided by the speed of light squared (m=E/c2). From there it was only one short algebraic step, but a giant intellectual leap to a more daring conclusion: that mass and energy are not only equivalent but interchangeable. That idea was contained in a far more famous equation published two years later: E=mc2. This said in effect that even a small amount of matter held enormous energy and opened the door to the nuclear age. It also eventually explained why the sun could burn for so many billions of years and give so much light. Simultaneously with the foregoing discoveries, modern scientists were looking into the origin of the material universe. Chief among all the theories proposed is the big-bang theory which looks back to a "primordial atom" and an immense explosion which has given rise to an expanding universe, of which our solar system is only a part. If this theory is true, matter in its original state consisted not only of mass but also of energy and light. Light itself is especially enigmatic because according to Einstein it manifests itself not only in waves but also at times has the characteristics of particles (called photons). Thus matter, which is known to us in so many of its developed forms, remains at its core an enigmatic combination of energy, mass and light. Einstein himself was in search of a solution to this enigma and pursued unsuccessfully the development of what scientists call a "unified field theory." Accordingly not a few present day scientists are concentrating their attention not so much on the arrangement of the basic particles of matter as on the four forces or forms of energy: gravity, electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. Eventually the sought for "unified field theory" might provide one explanation for the gravity that pulls apples to the ground, the electromagnetism that sparks lightning, the weak force that causes radioactivity and the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Some scientists are looking to subatomic particles for the solution, and they refer to such oddities as "glutons" and "quarks." Our inquiry could stop at this point with an assertion of fact. According to the available scientific data, there is more to matter than observable "particles." There is energy in especially four known forms -- gravitation, electromagnetism, a "weak force" such as radioactivity, and a "strong force" within atomic nuclei. Science is seeking a unitary field of these forces. But to be satisfied with such a summation would be a philosophical cop-out. What is the ontological basis of these observable phenomena? What is matter's original "form"? Let us begin with the obvious. Matter has many "forms." Whether we look at matter as it presents itself to us as a particle or as a form of energy, we see there are a variety of particles and forms of energy that call for an explanation. To answer our questions we must differentiate:
The last of these questions must be asked in regard to each of the preceding three. I will attempt to answer each question briefly: (1) An atom is constituted not only by the arrangement of three basic particles, the proton, the neutron and electron and the consequent activity proper to that arrangement, but also by a strong force that maintains its unity and identity. (2) The material universe in its origin seems to have consisted in the expansion of mass and energy at the speed of light. Concomitant with this expansion was a curving back of the universe on itself (gravitation). (3) The material universe in its present status has conserved the mass and energy that it originally possessed as well as its gravitation. Meanwhile there have arisen within it numerous kinds of distinct atoms, molecules and living organisms. Mankind has discovered other powerful forces in addition to gravitation and the strong nuclear force: electromagnetism and radioactivity. Matter's Ontological Structure All the above answers are given us by scientists. The task that lies before the philosopher is to evaluate these data in terms of the philosophical concepts of "substance" and "accident," or in terms of the "within" and the "without" of matter envisioned by Teilhard de Chardin. This requires us to answer our fourth question somewhat at length. (4) The intelligible arrangement that Science gives us for the various atoms of the periodic table, as observable, refer to the sensible and accidental order and call for a deeper explanation of the atom's ultimate intelligibility. So also the great force that holds together the nucleus of each atom points to a deeper source of ontological unity. Matter's ontological structure must be the "constant" that allows for atomic variations -- such structure is the "within," the "essence," the "form" of matter. What is it? I suggest that it is an "inner energy," or Teilhard's "radial" energy previously mentioned. At the same time it is the "principle of activity" as required by a "substantial form" in Thomistic philosophy. It is the basis for the varying intelligibility of the atoms of the periodic table. Yet this principle of activity and intelligibility is not enough to explain the atom, which consists of particles. The particles of the atom point to another principle "within" -- a principle of plurality explained in the first part of this article. Thus the "essence" of matter consists of inner energy (act), and inner parts capable of determination (potency or capacity for act). Their outward manifestation is the energy and mass of each atom, as known to scientists. Yet our consideration of the atom is not complete. How explain its inner unity and singularity? This is done in Thomistic philosophy by subsistence, i.e., by a substantial and singular mode of existence proper to each distinct unit of matter. Like each atom known to us (which must be explained not only scientifically but also philosophically) the original material creation of God must include the following elements: existence, essence (an inner, suprasensible energy together with a principle of plurality capable of a potential infinity of parts), and a subsistence by which the material universe is rendered singular and one. The outward manifestation of the "inner" energy and "inner" parts of the universe at large are phenomena such as electromagnetism and radioactivity in the mass of the universe. The outward manifestation of the universe's subsistence is the universe's gravitational pull back upon itself. Thus the subsistence mentioned here is not to be confused with the "subsistence" or all-embracing relationship by which God is "immanent" to the join world of spirit and matter, of which I spoke earlier. The subsistence of the material universe is the metaphysical reason for its unity, the real relationship of the material universe as a whole to all its parts, the ontological bond that binds the material universe together. If, then, the material universe in its original state consistence in being a singular dynamic principle of plurality, first manifested in energy, mass and light, each material substance that is derived from it is a new and distinct participant in it, or (we might say) a "relative" of it. Thus interpreted, "matter" is the single source of all material reality, which was and is in potency to many forms which multiply within the material universe. Thus this "universe" truly becomes man in one, one manifold which has several parts, several forces (forms of energy), and several manifestations of light. But not only this. It is the source from which individual beings emerge through distinct subsistence in possession of definite parts and intelligible forms. Thus the material universe, while itself one, gives rise to many distinct subsistences (distinct members) within it. These are the more complex instances of matter familiar to our ordinary experience. Matter as it becomes known to us in such experience, while understood as originally and basically one, presents many varying instances of itself in units of atoms, molecules, and finally living organisms. Each of the latter is understood as a distinct, developed kind of matter with its own subsistence and life-principle, yet dependent on the continuance in existence of the material universe itself. However, when we come to MAN, we must recognize an existence independent of the material universe, a spiritual form (soul) that cannot be expressed in a "formula" nor considered equivalent to lower principles of life and a subsistence that is personal. It is because of this that we recognize in each man a privileged "relative" of God: like Him by existing, like Him as spiritual, like Him as singular and distinct. Singular instances of material supposits are "relatives" of God only in the first and third senses. Meaning of Thomistic Subsistence According to St. Thomas, singular existing things ("supposits") should be recognized to have a singular mode of existence in conjunction with their essence. This mode of existence is called subsistence and is, as it were, the link between essence and existence, making them ONE. This gives rise to the Thomistic definition of supposit as "something distinct existing in some nature" and of person as "someone distinct existing in an intellectual nature." In Thomistic philosophy subsistence is the key concept to the understanding of the various analogous means of unity and singularity on the one hand, and community on the other. In an individual thing, as just mentioned, it is subsistence that unites its essence and existence into a singular whole. A thing's identity is rooted in the singularity of its subsistence implying its own essence and existence. In a different but analogous sense, the material universe has its own subsistence which binds together the universe as a whole with all the parts that emerge or have emerged within it. Finally the whole creation of spirit and matter is bound together by an all-embracing relationship to God, which is a "subsistence" of a unique kind. Of the utmost importance in the understanding of subsistence is its relational character -- it denotes the singular relation of an essence of existence (in its first meaning); it denotes the abiding relationship of the material universe as a whole to all its parts (in the second meaning indicated above); and last of all, it denotes the all-embracing relationship of the whole creation (spirit and matter) to God. From all this it is evident that each creature and all creation form a vast community and that in the last analysis all things are "relatives" of God. The created person is a "relative" of God in the highest sense, not only because of the person's spirituality and existence, but because of the person's mode of existing as "someone distinct." We should not overlook the fact, however, that every complete substance enjoys a similar privilege in being "something distinct" from everything else in virtue of its subsistence. Herein lies a creature's deepest resemblance to God -- truly God's own "relative." Though it is true that each creature's relationship to God is less in proportion to the resemblance of its essence to God's, nevertheless the fact that the smallest atom has a certain autonomy and individuality is worthy of note and makes it somewhat like God. Seen in this light, the vast array of atoms, molecules, organisms and human persons within the material universe all constitute, in their own way, an immense family of God. However, at this point let us return to the material universe in its origin -- to the dynamic principle (inner energy) created by God in the beginning and first manifested under the forms of energy, mass and light. Here we are face to face with the "inner" face of original matter -- our intelligence (which is spirit) sees another, suprasensible side to matter -- in Thomistic terms, its interior or essential "act" or "form"; or in the terminology of Teilhard de Chardin, its "radial" energy or "within." In the initial big bang of the universe, the "radial energy" or "act" present there had a basic unity and potentiality to take on many different forms that would emerge from it. Here at the origin of the universe we find the inner energy and internal actual and potential parts which were then partially and outwardly manifested in measurable (tangential) energy and (extrinsic) quantity. At the same time this original source continues to serve as the bond of union for the whole universe with its own subsistence, and thus the universe has a singularity and distinctiveness from all purely spiritual kinds of being. Each material thing that has sprung from original matter has its own "within" and "without." Its "without" remains the domain of the scientist. Its "within" includes an inner source of suprasensible energy, a radical unity or "subsistence" (autonomy and individual singularity), and inner "parts" (intrinsic extension) that can be manifested externally. Each material thing exists as a single center of energy with its own portion of matter which manifests itself outwardly in various ways. We have already begun to construct the synthesis that was the purpose of this article. We are not seeking a "common ground" for the material universe on a physical level -- an objective that eluded Einstein. We seek a ground on an ontological level. And in the last analysis we seek to discover the divine purpose and finality in the creation of such a ground. This objective, though not scientific, was one to which Einstein would have been sympathetic, if we are to judge from these words of his: "My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with out frail and feeble minds. That deeply emotional conviction of the presence of a superior reasoning power, which is revealed in the incomprehensible universe, forms by idea of God."
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